Chapter 1: Caesar Augustus, Octavian

Octavian, born in Rome on 23 September 63 B.C., came from a patrician family with roots in the Volscian town of Velletri. Due to Rome being too densely populated, Augustus, then Octavian, was taken to Velletri to be raised. His equestrian family had an incredibly decorated past, with his great-grandfather serving as a military tribune during the Second Punic War and his father as the governor of Macedonia. After his father died in 59 B.C., Octavian’s mother, Atia, married Lucius Marcius Phillippus, the former governor of Syria. Phillippus didn’t have much interest in Octavian, so he was raised by his grandmother, Julia, the sister of Julius Caesar. Julia’s death in 52-51 B.C. forced his mother and stepfather to be more present in his upbringing. 

In 47 B.C., Octavian donned the toga virilis, marking his transition from childhood to manhood. He was also elected to the College of Pontiffs. He held Greek games in honor of the Temple of Venus Genetrix, built by Julius Caesar. 

While Octavian was in Apollonia, Llyria, studying and training for the military, Julius Caesar was assassinated. Upon hearing about Caesar's death, Octavian chose not to stay with the Macedonian legions and sailed to Italy to determine his potential political fortune and security. Caesar, who had no legitimate children under Roman law, had adopted Octavian as his primary heir. Octavian was Caesar’s political heir and was given two-thirds of Caesar’s estate. 

Lacking the funds necessary to enter the Roman political hierarchy, Octavian demanded a portion of Caesar's 700 million sesterces for the war against Parthia. He used this money to raise troops against Marc Antony, who was vying for power. 

When Octavian arrived at Rome in May 44 B.C., he was Marc Antony’s primary opposition. Antony had amassed political support but lost favor by opposing the motion proposed to elevate Caesar to divine status. Antony refused to hand over the funds to Octavian, and his increasing authoritarianism alienated moderate Caesareans and led Cicero to attack him in a series of scathing speeches. 

In November 44 B.C., Octavian built a private army by recruiting Caesarian veterans, winning over two of Antony’s legions. To avoid Octavian’s influence, Antony went to Cisalpine Gaul, making the Senate align closely with Octavian, whom they viewed as a potential ally against Antony’s perceived tyranny. This ultimately led to the War of Mutina in 43 B.C., during which Antony suffered defeat at the hands of Octavian and the consuls Hirtius and Pansa. Though both consuls died, the Senate rewarded Octavian with a consulship and recognized his authority. 

Soon, Octavian realized he could not outmaneuver Antony and Lepidus individually and eventually joined them in forming the Second Triumvirate in November 43 B.C. This legally sanctioned alliance allowed them to reorder the Roman state to purge their enemies and seize property to fund their campaigns. In 42 B.C., they defeated Brutus and Cassius at Philippi in Macedonia, avenging Caesar’s death and cementing control. 

The triumvirs eventually divided the empire amongst themselves. Antony governed the Eastern provinces, Lepidus controlled parts of Africa, and Octavian took charge of the Western provinces, including Italy. 

However, tensions arose in 41-40 B.C., with the Perusine War. During this war, Octavian shut down an uprising led by Antony’s brother and wife. The Treaty of Brundisium followed shortly after, reaffirming their, albeit fragile, agreements. 

Lepidus faded into insignificance, leaving Octavian and Antony as primary powers. 

Antony’s alliance with Cleopatra VII of Egypt and “Donations of Alexandria” in 34 B.C. led to renewed hostility and anger with Octavian, who capitalized on Antony’s Eastern proclivities and framed him as a threat to Roman traditions. In 32 B.C., war became inevitable as the Senate declared conflict against Cleopatra, effectively isolating Antony. The Battle of Actium in 31 B.C. sealed Antony’s fate. Cleopatra and Antony took their lives shortly after. With Egypt’s annexation in 30 B.C., Octavian emerged as the unchallenged ruler of the Roman world. 

Over the next few years, Octavian consolidated his authority and returned to Rome in triumph while gradually dismantling the structures of the Republic. In 27 B.C., the Senate awarded him the title “Augustus” marking the birth of the Principate. Augustus maintained the “Republic” government while controlling the military, treasury, and foreign policy. He worked on Rome’s administration, expanded its borders, initiated large scale public works, temples, and forums. 

Augustus managed his succession issues relatively well. However, because of a series of unfortunate events, his chosen heirs, Marcellus, Gaius, and Lucius Caesar, all died. He eventually settled on Tiberius as his political heir. By 14 A.D., his position was set in stone and the empire was at peace. Augustus fell ill and died in Nola on the August of 19.